The Bare Breast

 Greetings,

The following discusses the subject of toplessness, or topfree, as may be indicated by the title of the article. This is a long article, being that I have collected evidence from various different sources nd mde argument from various different perspectives. From an anthroplogical point of view all the way to the politicisation of the subject an the use of toplessness for use in politics, each subject is addressed. Rather than argue a point of view, the article is intended to educate the reader about the subject, and possibly argue for a little more understanding in the community at large. 

Cheers,

Henry.

Copyright Notice

 

“the data found is freely available on the Internet, books, journals and articles, so this means that the permission for the use of its resources and analysis has been implied.”[1]

 

          For the purposes of what is presented here the author only claims copyright for original content which is presented. All other copyright reverts to the author or publisher, as may be the case. The information presented here in its original form is for educational and personal purposes, not for profit.

Introduction

          The bare breast and nipple are a common sight at swimming pools, because males have two of them unless they have had them removed due to some accident or medical procedure. However, should a female, either deliberately or accidentally, expose a breast or nipple, there is either problems of considered indecent exposure from the former, or embarrassment from the latter. This would seem ironic considering that both of them are simply skin covering tissue. Here, we can see how the female breast, and especially the nipple, is for the most part, a taboo sight in public. There are those who will push the limits, but there are still limits.

          The following discussion will address the subject of toplessness, or topfree, as some might call it. There will be different elements discussed so the subject can be founded on the basis of understanding. Evidence of the exposed breast as a normal part of cultures will be presented, through history, and in contemporary cultures. There will also be a brief discussion of fashion, and considered appropriate places for females to be seen with exposed breasts. This will all lead to the inevitable discussion of the politicisation of the body and how female bodies have been politicised and even used as political weapons. Before this can be discussed, the definition of some terms is necessary.

Definition

 

“By definition, topless is the dimunitive of top; it is the opposite of topped, and refers to the state of wearing no top at all, so that the breasts and nipples are fully exposed.”[2]

 

          The definition presented above gives a simple explanation of what it means to be topless, simply to be without a top. This could refer to either a male or female individual, but mostly it is used to refer to the female, being that it primarily refers to a female with her breasts exposed. Evidence for this is found in alternate words used when referring to males without a shirt on.

 

“Toplessness refers to the state in which a woman's breasts, including her areola and nipples, are exposed, especially in a public place or in a visual medium. The male equivalent is barechestedness, also commonly called shirtlessness.”[3]

 

          The most interesting thing about such indications within the English language is the indication points toward what the individual is lacking, and is indicated in two cases, topless and shirtless, with barechestedness simply indicating that the male has a bare chest. If further examination is made, one will find that such a focus on the lack of garment on the top of the body is not found in French, for example, where it is indicated that the individual is wearing “bottoms alone.”

 

“Synonyms include culotte seule (French for the bottoms alone), bikini sans soutien-gorge, culotte solomente, barebreasted, and barechested (although this last term is usually reserved for men). Topless implies the subject also has bare shoulders, torso, midriff, and nipples, but as a noun or adjective the term makes no commentary about what the subject is wearing below the waistline, except it is implied the subject is wearing something.”[4]

 

          The French focuses on what the individual is wearing rather than on what they are not wearing, as in the English language. Similar terms all point toward the individual not wearing something i.e. “topfree,” the alternate term, used by activists that will be noted later on in the discussion, also indicates that the top is missing from the individual. This focus on a lack of clothing on a particular part of an individual, points toward an issue which can be seen throughout the history of western culture and clothing.

Historical and Contemporary Attitudes

 

“In many European societies between the Renaissance and the 19th century, exposed breasts were acceptable while a woman's bared legs, ankles or shoulders were considered risqué.”[5]

 

          In some fashions the breast was even completely exposed, and this was considered normal. Some of the highest of the high wore these fashions, and the exposure of the breast was considered just a part of the fashion of the age. The exposure of the leg or ankle, on the other hand, was considered to be quite provoking. The dress which exposed the shoulder a little was considered more arousing than the one which exposed most of the breast. Attitudes change over time. This is even seen in contemporary attitudes.

 

“In a survey of 190 different societies, researches found that very few associated exposed breasts with sexuality, but that there was an insistence that women conceal their breasts.”[6]

 

          Even in contemporary societies around the world, the breast is not necessarily considered to be sexually arousing, or even connected with sexuality. Still there is an insistence that they remain covered, for some reason. Some moral more that requires the breast of the female remain covered. Even during the hey-days of the 1960s where peace and love seemed to rule, toplessness was risqué.

 

“Although some social attitudes to increased body exposure began to soften during the late 1960s, contemporary Western societies still generally view toplessness unfavorably.”[7]

 

          These were in western societies, the indigenous societies of other nations will be discussed afterward, and differences in attitude toward the exposed female breast will be noted in their history, and in their contemporary attitudes. Of more interest, in our more current age, studies have been conducted in regard to the exposure of the breast with some interesting results. Social and cultural contexts were found to be important.

 

“A more recent study of 116 college-age women in Australia found that those who had gone topless were more accepting of toplessness generally, more sexual, and had higher self-esteem and higher body image. In contemporary society, the extent to which a woman may expose her breasts depends on social and cultural context. Women's swimsuits and bikinis commonly reveal the tops and sides of the breasts. Displaying cleavage is considered permissible in many settings, and is even a sign of elegance and sophistication on many formal social occasions, but it may be prohibited by dress codes in settings such as workplaces and schools, where sexualized displays of the female breast may be considered inappropriate.”[8]

 

          Some swimsuits expose quite an amount of the breast. Mini-kinis, cover very little of their wearers, only covering the nipple and very little of the breast. It is relatively common to the side and front of the breast at beaches and swimming pools, and this is not considered a problem. Low-cut tops and push-up bras are a common feature in fashions, and seen commonly on the street, as are evening dresses with fittings which accentuate the cleavage and figure of the person wearing them. However each is only worn in its setting. There are those who would wish and do put even further restrictions.

 

“Some cultures have even begun to expand social prohibitions on female toplessness to prepubescent and even infant girls. This trend toward covering the female nipple from infancy onward is particularly noticeable in the United States, Eastern Asia and the Middle East, but is much less common in Europe.”[9]

 

          The appropriate age when a girl should begin to cover her breasts and nipples is a question which has been asked, in those cultures where such a thing is a concern. In some cultures it is only a problem when the girl begins to turn into a woman, so at puberty. Others believe that this should occur earlier because they need to be enculturated sooner to develop the appropriate amount of modesty. Such concerns are, or were, not present for many indigenous cultures.

Indigenous Cultures

 

“Topless costumes have been and continue to be widely worn by a diverse societies around the planet, not only for swimwear, but also as formal attire ... and especially in tropical environments, for everyday dress ... But the total exposures of the breasts have always presented a challenge to Western societies and media, a concept discussed by Langer and which he called relative modesty. Needless to say topless in the West has migrated from the burlesque hall, the stripper, and the pinup girl to the mainstream woman.”[10]

 

          While Western cultures have restricted the exposure of the breast as a part of costume to situations such as adult entertainment, models and other such situations, in other cultures women have walked about in their normal lives with their breasts and nipples completely exposed as a part of everyday dress. It is the culture that decides whether something is normal or not, it is not something which is in-built into the human psyche. The challenge for Western cultures about the exposure of the breast is a relatively recent occurrence, considering the expanse of history, and relatively limited, considering the amount of cultures which consider the exposure of the breast to the norm.

 

“Attitudes towards toplessness have varied considerably across cultures and over time. The lack of clothing above the waist for both females and males was the norm in traditional cultures of North America, Africa, Australia and the Pacific Islands until the arrival of Christian missionaries, and it continues to be the norm in many indigenous cultures today.”[11]

 

          When Western cultures came into contact with cultures who were wearing little clothing, there was a culture shock. The social mores that they were accustomed to did not apply. They applied their approaches to social feelings in regard to clothing and which parts of the body were allowed to be exposed. It was not only Christian missionaries who influenced change in indigenous cultures. Some of the cultures kept their cultural practices even with the presence of such influences, and still do today. To a point, this was accepted, yet when it comes to toplessness in their culture, there is still a major sticking point.

 

“toplessness of the natives is natural it is acceptable, whereas topless of white women is out of the question. An undercurrent of the puritanical view also holds that the dark-skinned people are not entirely human, and as animals, slaves, or entertainers they remain a creature somewhere between the monkey and the civilized, and thus are not entirely subject to human rules. Thus from this perspective, the display of the female breasts, both in real life and in media, contains deep political and social implications.”[12]

 

          There are images of topless natives in relatively recent publications of investigations of indigenous peoples. Even in news articles where the images have not been censored to protect anyone from embarrassment from seeing naked breasts.[13] Yet you find a news article from a similar source, and white women are conveniently facing the wrong way or other similar situations so as not to reveal themselves, or at least their nipples.[14] The implication of such is that there is some racial implication, some separation between the two, that the indigenous breast does not count, but the white breast does. Ironically the reverse has also occurred.

“George W. Bush is actually in favour of toplessness. In his homestate of Texas, during the time that he was governor, he passed a law that white women are allowed to go topless in public... but only white women. Apparently black, asian, latino or native women are somehow "obscene" just because their breasts are a different colour.”[15]

 

          The irony here is that if the same Black, Asian, Latino, or Native women were found in an “indigenous” situation then their toplessness would likely be ignored, because they were indigenous. Such racial stereo-typing, one would expect should have gone out, but it is still current as has been demonstrated. It is a hangover from the Victorian period, one which has been reinforced.

 

“Euro-American confrontation with topless prior to the 1960s are often deeply conflicted and involved a racial separation. This is because the dark-skinned, tropical people world-wide often are topless, whereas their white-skinned northern hemisphere counterpoints wear more clothes.”[16]

 

          The 1960s began to loosen things up a little bit in regard to the difference between people, but as has been demonstrated by the contrast between news articles depicting women of indigenous peoples, and white women in contemporary media, there is still a hangover present from the earlier period. The norm is still enforced that native people do not wear clothes, while civilised people do wear clothes, because they are civilised; likewise women should wear clothes and cover themselves to remain civilised, and modest.

 

“Exposed breasts were and are normal in many indigenous societies. However, western countries have social norms around female modesty, often enforced by legal statutes, that require women to cover their breasts in public.”[17]

 

          The legal statutes that enforce the covering of breasts in public are primarily concerned with the concern for the enforcement of old ideas of modesty which have become social norms in Western cultures. There is no evidence of health or other risks concerned with the exposure of female breasts, and in many cases it has given evidence to improve self-esteem. Toplessness and the social mores and the clash between cultures become a real problem when indigenous and Western cultures collide, as they often do.

 

“In many indigenous, non-Western cultures it is generally acceptable for both men and women to go without clothing that covers the torso. Female toplessness can also be a traditional aspect in indigenous cultural celebrations.”[18]

 

          One of the prime examples of such toplessness in indigenous cultural celebrations is found in regard to the Australian Aborigines. In particular it concerns the tribes of the Northern Territory who inhabit the area around Alice Springs. There was a cultural clash between the indigenous population and the local law enforcement.

Australian Aborigines

          The argument arose concerning a “police ban on a traditional Aboriginal dance featuring topless women.”[19] The indigenous population of Australia has been mostly assimilated into the more Western population, but there are areas where indigenous cultures still remain, and indigenous practices still remain. It should be noted that the Australian native population, like many indigenous cultures, does not have one homogenous cultural practice, but many depending on which tribal area that a person travels.

          In the case of the tribe which inhabits the area around Alice Springs, their women perform an indigenous dance, which they practise in a park, and it is practised topless. “Aborigines are furious that police told dancers from the remote community of Papunya to stop practising in a public park in the city of Alice Springs.”[20] Likely, the group was reported by one of the relatively few members of the white population to the local police who was offended by the sight, and who likely did not understand the cultural practice which was being exhibited.

          If the case was argued on historical precedence, based on the practice of culture, then the indigenous culture would certainly win, “women said dancing topless was part of Aboriginal culture dating back thousands of years.”[21] These cultures which many Western nations see and think of as “backward” or “primitive” when they see them, and their the colonists saw them, have been practiced the same for thousands of years. They are a chance to look back through history. Further, in the case of these topless women, they have had their indigenous practices broadcast around the world, and in public gatherings, with great interest.

 

“"This is part of our culture and thousands and thousands of people around the world have seen Aboriginal ladies dancing without their tops on television, theatres and many public occasions," CLC chairman Kunmanar Breaden said.”[22]

 

          The case is a perfect example of a the invasion of Western concepts of what is correct and proper in regard to what should and should not be seen in public, imposing itself on another culture. The ironic thing being that the same culture has already been seen, famously in public, breasts exposed, already, before the incident occurred. So as a part of cultural practise, the bare breast should not be of any concern, but such has already been indicated. When colonists come they make changes, as they did in Australia, so did colonists in other places.

Indonesia

          Moving a little north of Australia to Indonesia there are further examples of cultures where the females did not cover their breasts in their traditional cultures; where before the introduction of foreign influence, no one was concerned about the exposure of the breast. Here we find it was not just Western cultures which had their influence, but also the influence of Islam

 

“In the Indonesian region, toplessness was the norm among the Dayak, Javanese, and the Balinese people of Indonesia before the introduction of Islam and contact with Western cultures.”[23]

 

          There is a lot of blame laid at the feet of Western civilisation when it comes to the ruin of indigenous cultures, but it was not the only cause. In this case the introduction of Islam also had an effect on the changing of culture. This changing of culture is what caused in the ending of toplessness amongst women in the tribes in the South-East Asian region. A similar progression is found in Thailand.

Thai

 

“Until around one hundred years ago, northern Thai women used to be naked from the waist up, especially when at home. They wore a long tube-skirt - pha sin - tied high above the waists below their breasts, and had a shawl which they could use for modesty.”[24]

 

          The long tube-skirt of the Thai was perfectly suited to the tropical weather, and exposure of the upper body allowed more heat to escape. There was no need for covering of the breasts when at home and a shawl is noted that could be worn for modesty, but was not required. Here there is a normal situation where the female’s breasts are exposed at home, especially, as a normal situation and may be covered when outside the home. Again, it is external influence which changes clothing.

 

“In the late 19th century the influence of missionaries and modernization under King Chulalongkorn encouraged local women to wear blouses to cover their breasts. This evolved into the lace blouses worn today.”[25]

 

          In this case at least the missionaries were supported by the king rather than simply invading and attempting to impose their ways by influence. It is noted here that the blouses which were worn to cover the breasts evolved into the lace blouses which are worn today, this notes a change in culture. A further effect can be seen in the culture, where such effects on the culture are enshrined in law. “In Thailand, the government of Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsonggram issued a series of cultural standards between 1939 and 1942.”[26] This resulted in the fashion which is seen today, cultural standards enforced by the government. Remaining in the same region, in India there was a similar liberality with clothing in the traditional period.

India

          When the clothing of India is brought to mind, considering the female clothing, the image of the sari comes to mind a wrapped garment which covers most of the body, concealing most of it. This was not the case in the traditional period; the clothing was quite a bit more liberal.

 

“The royal ladies in the frescoes wear pleated robes from the waist upwards, save for necklace, armlets, wristlets, ear and hair ornaments and displayed their breasts. The ladies in waiting wear waist clothes, few ornaments and a firm 'breast bandage' or thanapatiya. The Sigiriya style of clothing — Sigiriya frescoes depict women wearing the cloth gracefully draped like a dhoti tied in a knot at the front and pulled down to expose the navel — must have survived a few centuries in Ceylon”[27]

 

          The fresco displays Indian women in quite the opposite of the “popular” image which is portrayed. Naked from the waist upward, except for some jewellery, and a simple cloth covering the groin area, pulled down to expose the navel. This tradition of exposing the breasts did not mysteriously die out after a short period of time, but was quite prevalent in the culture. Through to the tenth-century as indicated.

 

“In the Tenth Century when a lay devotee, Rohini, wore a blouse before Anuruddha Thera only to cover marks left by a skin disease. This indicates that it was still unusual for women to cover their body. Women's dress was then a cloth round the hip leaving the body bare from waist upwards”[28]

 

          Anuruddha Thera is one of the disciples of the Buddha, and so a very important individual. Rohini only wears clothing on her upper body to cover marks of disease, not to cover her breasts, indicating that it was not unusual for them to go uncovered, even to see important people. The indicated clothing is a cloth wrapped about the hip, this leaves the entire upper part of the body exposed. This state, with the wrap of cloth about the body is common for both sexes.

 

“In many parts of northern India before the Muslim conquest of India, women were topless. Women and men typically wore an antriya on the lower body and were nude from the waist up, aside from pieces of jewelry.”[29]

 

          The Muslim conquest of India occurred during the twelfth-century, and its effects will be discussed later on, though some of them will be noted sooner. What will be noted above is that both men and women were uncovered aside from jewellery from the waist upward in northern India in this earlier period, unconcerned about the exposure of the female breast, it was only later, after the influence of external forces that changes began.

 

“by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries it was acceptable to remain uncovered at home but when going out to wear an upper garment. At this stage the cloth was worn with a separate garment covering the breasts thrown over the shoulders, which evolved into the shawl and breastband”[30]

 

          India covers a large area and the influence of external forces would not be noticed for quite some time. Indeed it would not be for centuries after the Muslim influence had been felt in the northern parts of the country that effects of any kind would be felt in the south. “Toplessness was the norm for women among several indigenous peoples of South India until the 19th or early 20th century,”[31] in each case it was an external influence which changed the fashion and resulted in the covering of the breast.

 

“there was no place for prudery and Puritanism in the authentic tradition of Hinduism and Buddhism. One may speculate that it was the rise of Islam in India and the Muslim conquest of south India by the mid-14th Century that was responsible for these changes in women's attire”[32]

 

          The stricter approaches to social mores and the modesty and place of women in Islam are likely causes of the changes in the fashion in India as a result of the Islamic invasion. These influences would have resulted in the increased modesty of women and thus the covering of the breast, as too much exposure of the female would have gone against more the more conservative ideas found in Islam. There was no concern for covering the upper part of the body, save for warmth, external influences were the reason for the changes.

 

“for many centuries Indian women did not wear upper garments except during winter in certain parts of northern India. He quotes the example of the Nayar tribal women of south India, who until the mid-20th Century went about topless. Bhasham implies that the Muslim invasions were what altered the dress codes of Indian women.”[33]

 

          History would have it that India would change hands between various influences because of her natural resources. This would result in different influences on her culture. These influences on the culture are clearest seen in the clothing that the people wear; for the significance of the current discussion most in the covering of the breast. “Until the late 19th Century many women of the so-called low castes did not cover their breasts, whether at home or when going outside.”[34] These were the low caste people, and no one paid them particularly much attention, so their state of dress would not have been particularly noticed. Of course that would be until colonial rule was imposed and the influence of missionaries felt.

 

“Nira gives an explanation about the puritanical influences that came with Western colonial rule and the imposition of Judeo-Christian culture on the liberal tradition of Hindu-Buddhist culture that prevailed in ancient Lanka”[35]

 

          While the source indicates the influence which was most felt in Sri Lanka, previously known as Ceylon, the same was felt on the mainland of India where colonial rule was imposed by the British. Many ideals and cultural ideas were imposed, including social mores about the exposing of the breast. Such ideals originating from Judeo-Christian culture were also taken with them when they went to the South-Pacific and the island nations which were there.

South Pacific

          The South-Pacific had many islands and many island-nations, each with their cultures and customs. “In the South Pacific, toplessness was common prior to contact with Western missionaries, but is less common today.”[36] Again, we see the impact of one culture imposing its moral ideas on those of another. In particular, an examination may be made where a particular topic is easier to talk about if the object is normalised, whereas if it is taboo it is much more difficult to talk about.

 

“Cultural taboos are less stringent, however, regarding women’s breasts. Traditionally on the islands, women appear bare-chested in public; hence discussion about breasts can happen more easily whether on the islands or in the U.S.”[37]

 

          Women from the Marshall Islands find it much easier to talk about the subject of breast cancer than they do about cervical cancer, because the breasts are usually exposed in their culture. Breasts are a normal part of the everyday life. There is no cultural taboo about them, nor social more attached to them. Whereas similar attitudes are less present in Western cultures, so talking about breast cancer is more difficult. Here toplessness promotes physical health by talking about the subject of breast cancer and raising awareness. The South-Pacific is not the only place where the lack of coverage of the breast is still a cultural practice.

Africa

 

“Among Himba women of northern Namibia and Hamar of southern Ethiopia, besides other traditional groups in Africa, the social norm is for women to be bare-breasted.”[38]

 

          In this case a bare-breasted woman is the social norm, and a woman who covers her breast is the one who is acting against the cultural situation. One must always look at things from the point of view of the culture, not one’s own socialised cultural views. Many of the tribes in Africa have women who do not cover their breasts in everyday life, or who are uncovered for cultural practice. An example of the uncovered breast in African culture for cultural practice would be the Reed Dance (Umhlanga), an annual Swazi and Zulu event.[39] This has seen some controversy due to the age of some of the participants, a very Western view of the event.

          In each indigenous culture that has been presented, the indigenous culture had the breasts exposed, especially in home situations, and even in public situations in many cultures. The exposed breast in these cultures was not seen as risqué, but as a normal part of life, as a part of the cultural practices. Some of these cultural practices continue today, and should be allowed to do so, supported as part of the culture in which they are found. This part of the investigation should provide sufficient evidence that such topless practices are not unique or unusual, but quite common amongst non-Western cultures and should be considered apart from any social mores.

Fashion

          When the subject of “fashion” arises in conversation, indeed as a topic made public in the media it is generally a Euro-centric concept in generalist opinion that is being discussed. The fashion of the indigenous peoples who have previously been discussed is certainly not up for discussion, and most often neither are many of the fashions of many other non-Western cultures regardless of whether they have bared breasts or not. One guaranteed way to make people take notice of fashion is to show a little too much flesh on the catwalk, or in public.

Topless Swimsuit

          The 1960s was an era in which many changes were happening and many parts of the world were accepting of many changes, but the exposure of the female breast was something that was something that was going to make people take notice. “In 1964 he [Rudi Gernreich] made headlines with his infamous topless bathing suit that exposed breasts for the first time in commercial fashion.”[40] This was the first time that breasts were exposed in commercial fashion.

          The swimsuit deliberately exposed the breasts. The individual did not take off a part of the swimsuit to expose themselves as might have been done with previous swimsuits. This approach can be seen with the bikini where the top is removed to expose the breasts, and there is an argument as to whether a bikini is still a bi-kini if the top is removed.

 

“It has been argued that a bikini without its top is no longer a bi-kini, and is more correctly classified as a monokini. Supporters of this argument rely on both the structural arguments of the costume as well as the fact that the true monokini is not even sold with a top.”[41]

 

          The monokini, as indicated is simply a pair of bikini-style pants with no top, sold as a single unit. It is most interesting that arguments can rage over such things as whether the name of a thing and whether a piece of clothing is the same thing with one of the parts of it removed. Such arguments hide the politics of the topless swimsuit, “The topless swimsuit - as modelled by muse Peggy Moffitt - became an international controversy. It was THE symbol of women's liberation.”[42]

This swimsuit became the symbol of women’s liberation because it freed them, at least their breasts, from the confinement of the swimsuit. In a symbolic gesture it freed them also. One would think that such a piece of leisure-wear that would be worn relatively infrequently would have little impact, but the reverse was the case. “The topless swimsuit soon led to the topless dress, and also gave birth to another revolution, the no-bra bra. This did much to change the fit of clothes.”[43] Rather than being uncomfortable and bulky, women’s clothes began to become more slim and form-fitting, more feminine in nature, and more comfortable. Of course the topless swimsuit was here to stay, at least in the form of the topless bikini, such situations even exist to this day, but such occasions are most associated, as noted with bathing.

Topless Bathing

          When considering the subject of topless bathing the subject of fashion is not too far away, because there is always part of a set of swimwear to consider, the part that covers the lower half of the body. So, in part, it is integrally linked to the subject of fashion, at least in the contemporary Western world. Topless bathing is a subject which covers some different aspects which will be discussed.

Most of all topless bathing highlights that, “Toplessness in a public place is most commonly practised or encountered near water, either as part of a swimming activity or sunbathing.”[44] Or at least this is the common Western view. Here is a subject which people are more comfortable discussing in regard to the bare breast. The bare breast is almost an expected sight on many beaches of the world, and the association with bathing has historical precedence.

Historical Bathing

 

“In terms of bathing and swimwear, topless bathing is practiced in antiquity by the Greeks, Romans and others. Baths decline in the middle ages under pressure of the spread of the black plague and church condemnation of washing the body. The tide begins to turn during the Victorian era as French Orientalist painters like Gerome present an idealized depiction of Muslim harem baths”[45]

 

          Communal bathing was practiced by the Greeks and Romans, not only was it topless in many of the baths, but it was also nude. Baths like these declined in the medieval period due to the spread of disease, due to the lack of sanitation in the cities. This is ironic considering that if more of the people actually bathed then disease would have actually been less of an issue. The irony of public baths being present in the Victorian era cannot be lost considering the prudish nature of much of the era, but these baths were, no doubt, either restricted or in reverse only frequented by people of lower born character.

Contemporary Beginnings

          The contemporary beginnings of topless beaches are found in French and Dutch colonies, especially in the Caribbean. These beaches are much less restrictive in regard to dress, and have been for an extended period of time.

 

"A number of Caribbean locations, especially those that were formerly French and Dutch colonies, permit nude and topless sunbathing, like the French West Indies islands of St. Barths, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Maarten.”[46]

 

          These beaches allowed not only topless bathing, as has been noted, and discussed here but also nude bathing, as subject which is well-worth discussing. It also has elements which concern many of the same topics which are raised, but affect not only females but also males, though again, the female seems to take most of the spotlight. It seems that the “fairer sex” takes the spotlight in regard to the exposure of flesh. Though, it would seem, that the popularity of topless and nude beaches was to spread, regardless of others’ opinions of the social mores that were being broken.

 

“Topless sunbathing slowly spread to other Western countries throughout Europe and Australia, many of which now allow topless sunbathing on some or all of their beaches, either through legal statute or by generally accepted practice, and beaches were designated for nude or topless bathers. A topless, or top-optional, beach differs from a nude beach in that beach goers of both sexes are required to keep their genital area covered, although females have the option to remove their tops without fearing legal prosecution or official harassment.”[47]

 

          There are many beaches around the world on which a female is permitted to take her top off and reveal her breasts. This right is protected by legal statutes, or is generally accepted by the people who attend the beaches. There are also beaches which are clearly signed as nude or topless beaches as well. Often, there are gate-keepers at these beaches to keep the “tourists” out i.e. those who just want to see naked bodies. This latter part identifies an unfortunate part of the identification of the naked breast and body as a sexual object to be observed, and this sexualisation of the body seems to be having an impact on younger populations.

Declined

 

“media reports in recent years note that the number of women sunbathing topless on French beaches has markedly declined, and that younger French women have become more disapproving of exposing breasts in public.”[48]

 

          The locations of topless beaches, it will have been previously noted, were primarily those with relatively high French populations or former French colonies. Yet younger French women are less inclined to sunbathe topless, and have become more disapproving of the exposed breast in public. This marks a present trend which is seen toward more conservatism in regard to the exposure of the breast, and hence the discussion which is made throughout the discussion which is presented here.

          In regard to the exposure of the female breast in public there are debates which rage across the world as to whether it is appropriate, and there have been debates in regard to legal statutes, as have been presented. The subject of topless bathing merely scratches the surface and reveals a subject that is always present, the subject of body politics. There is always a question of politics when it comes to the rights permitted in regard to the female body, laws have been made which control what women are allowed to do with their bodies, yet the same are not present with men, the subject of the bare breast is one of the subjects which is of concern in regard to the issue of body politics.

Body Politics

 

“the publishing of white female topless subjects has been a much more carefully controlled endeavor. Topless mythological creatures have been tolerated since Renaissance times, especially when the figure is not entirely human ... or when the theme has a religious excuse.”[49]

 

          The publishing of images of white females with exposed breasts has always been a controlled situation. The situation of indigenous breasts has not been the same, except when such a situation has endangered social mores, as indicated previously in the discussion of indigenous peoples. Where such white female breasts have been associated with non-human figures there has been some leeway given. This identifies the issue which has always been associated with female bodies and highlights the politics associated with the female body.

 

“Women’s bodies have always been central to feminist politics. The female body has historically been the site for the exercise of gendered and racialized power relations, involving violence, discipline, exclusion and normalization.”[50]

 

          Feminists have highlighted the body politics of the female body and emphasized the issues surrounding the issues associated with the controls associated in regard to the female body. Most often these social controls have been imposed by governmental bodies composed primarily of male members of white ethnicity which make their decisions based on cultural and social norms. Such social norms have resulted in an effect on the perception of females who do expose their nipples or areola.

 

“Many societies consider women who expose their nipples and areola as immodest and contrary to social norms. Most jurisdictions do not have laws prohibiting toplessness directly, but in many jurisdictions a topless woman may be socially or officially harassed or cited for public lewdness, indecent exposure, public indecency or disorderly conduct.”[51]

          The exposure of the breast and especially the nipple and areola according to social norms places the female who performs such an act as deviant according to certain social norms. The result of which, even where legally the individual may have no ramifications, is that they may be harassed, though in some situations they may also come face legal issues as well. The result of which has been political groups forming around the exposure and denial of such social norms. “The topfree movement looks beyond the taboo surrounding naked breasts”[52] such movements strive to free women from the bounds of such social norms and create campaigns to normalise the exposure of the breast and nipple in public areas, in an attempt to gain the same rights as males do.

 

“The Free the Nipple campaign – named after Lina Esco’s 2014 film – is a global push to desexualise women’s breasts and allow women the freedom to be topless in the same places in which it is acceptable for men and boys to do so.”[53]

 

          These campaigns are intended to examine social norms and address the concepts upon which they are based. They attempt to address the sexual connotations which are associated with the female breast and try to remove such ideas. These ideas are present even in the etymology of words associated in comparison between the male and female in regard to the absence of clothing on the upper part of the body.

Etymology

 

“The word "topless" usually refers to a woman who is naked above her waist or hips or, at least, whose breasts are exposed to public view, specifically including her areola and nipples.”[54]

 

          When the word “topless” is used it is primarily used to refer to a female who is not wearing clothing on the upper part of her body. It primarily refers to a female who has her entire breast exposed to public view. This is a clear statement of what the situation is, and most often is associated with sexual connotations as will be presented.

 

“It may indicate a designated location where one might expect to find women not wearing tops, such as a "topless beach" or "topless bar". It can also be used to describe a garment that is specifically designed to reveal the breasts,”[55]

 

          A “topless beach” indicates a beach in which females are seen without the top part of a bathing suit being worn specifically, because it is normal for the male not to wear a top with their swimwear. The indication of such is that it is not normal for a female to have their top exposed. Further, the “topless bar” indicates a bar in which the hostesses are not wearing clothing above the waist, this is usually for men to go and observe females in this unclothed situation and derive pleasure from the presence of females dressed as such, a clear sexual connotation.

 

“The word "topless" may carry sexual or exhibitionist connotations. Because of this, advocates of women's legal right to uncover their breasts wherever men may go bare-chested have adopted the alternative term "topfree", which is not perceived to have these connotations.”[56]

 

          “Topfree” has been used by activists and advocates of individuals to avoid the sexual or exhibitionist connotations which have been socially attached to the term “topless”. They have had to invent a new term to avoid previous socially established ideas of the idea of going without clothes above the waist. No such issue exists for the male.

 

“Barechestedness is the state of a man or boy wearing no clothes above the waist, exposing the upper torso. Bare male chests are generally considered acceptable in or around the house; at beaches, swimming pools and sunbathing areas; when exercising outside in hot weather; and in certain outdoor construction work settings.”[57]

 

          The male has a completely different term for the same state of lack of clothing above the waist even though the same term could be used to describe the female, as both have bare chests; both are exposing the upper torso. It is accepted that the male can have no clothing above the waist in several different situations, situations in which if a female was to do the same, she would be considered risqué, or immodest. The male term simply describes the situation and has no sexual connotations attached, even though the male chest is considered arousing to some.

 

“In most societies, male barechestedness is much more common than female toplessness, even among children. Exposure of the male pectoral muscles is often considered to be far less taboo than of the female breasts, despite some considering them equally erogenous.”[58]

 

          Males who are unclothed above the waist could easily be considered “topless” as they are equally as unclothed as the female, yet they have the much more neutral term “barechested”. This is a term that could be used for the female as they also have nothing on their chest, but their term focuses on the absence of clothing, something considered taboo, highlighting the sexualisation of the breast and as a result, toplessness of the female.

Sexualisation

 

“Social norms around toplessness vary by context and location. Throughout history, women's breasts have been featured in art and visual media, from painting and sculpture to film and photography, and such representations are generally defended on the grounds of artistic merit. Toplessness may also be deemed acceptable on educational, medical, or political grounds. At many beaches and resort destinations, especially in Europe and Australia, women are either formally or informally permitted to sunbathe topless. However, societies tend to view breast exposure unfavorably, and subject it to stringent regulations or prohibitions, if its intent is perceived to be sexual arousal.”[59]

 

          What needs to be remembered about the issue of the female breast, its exposure and the social norms which surround it, it varies depending on the location, context, and culture. Breasts can be found in art in many forms, such presentations are excused on the basis that they are art. Other presentations are excused on the basis of the reason that they have been presented, as indicated. There are social norms present and social mores present in regard to the exposure of the breast, especially if indicated social arousal may result. It is this sexualisation which causes the greatest issue.

 

“Breasts. Just over 50 percent of the population has them. American culture is fascinated by them. Slang terms number in the hundreds. They’re in magazines, on billboards, in beer commercials—always as purely sexual attachments, bouncing enticingly as physical manifestations of femininity.”[60]

 

          There are many different slang terms for the breast, and they are seen all over the place, often highlighted, pointed to in some situations; most often seen as sexual attachments and indications of femininity. There is the issue, the sexualisation of the breast. They are not seen as a simple normal part of the human anatomy. The social norms which are established are hard to break. The laws which are created from these social norms demonstrate the social norms, and even when the laws are repealed, the spectre of the social norm remains.

 

“In much of contemporary Western society, it is not culturally acceptable for women to expose their nipples and areola in public. In most Western societies, once girls enter adolescence, it is the social norm for them to behave modestly and cover their breasts in public. Until recent times, women who went topless were cited for indecent exposure or lewdness. Women and the law in most western countries generally do not regard breasts as indecent. However, wearing a top in public is a social norm and most women are reluctant to go against it.”[61]

 

          The laws of nations change, often as a result of political or social pressures for them to change. There was not too long a time ago when the bikini was not allowed on public beaches, where women were arrested for wearing them. An example of social mores, enforced by law, changed as a result of social change and pressure. More recently women have been allowed to be seen with their breasts exposed, and in more places, but women are reluctant to do this because there are social norms which they grew up with, so are reluctant to go against.

The breast is still seen as erotic. “Contemporary Western culture codes breasts as erotic objects, as the increasing practice of breast enlargement through implants illustrates.”[62] The practice of breast enlargement is a process by which the breast is enlarged. For many women this is a process to make them feel more sexually appealing to a prospective partner. It highlights the focus on breasts as a sexual object, part of the female which is used to lure the male. This view while shared by many Western cultures does not always extend to the exposure of the breast and the problems associated.

 

“Europeans think Americans are over-excited by bare breasts, and although the Europeans are more suave about it, even in topless-rich environments ... a complex set of symbols and rules govern etiquette and behavior about covering and uncovering of the breasts”[63]

 

          The exposed breast is approached differently depending on where an individual is and what they are doing. It is also different depending on the culture that they are associating with. Not all Western cultures are the same, as the difference between the Europeans and Americans, above, presents. Even here, there are rules of behaviour, social norms in place which determine the proper processes by which the breast is revealed or not. The same attraction has not even been present throughout history.

 

“Other parts of women’s bodies have been viewed as more enticing than breasts, including buttocks, legs, ankles, hair, and feet. Bound feet (or the “golden lotus”) in ancient China had strong erotic connections and acts that could be performed with them were detailed in illustrated sex manuals.”[64]

 

          A discussion was made about the breast and its exposure through history. It was also noted that the breast was not always the object of sexual attention that it is today. Other parts of the female body have drawn the attention of the male eye throughout history and different cultures, and this is of worthy note. This needs to be considered within the view of the politicisation of the female body and especially the sexualisation of the breast. Attitudes have changed over history, and it is the attitude which is important.

          The attitude to a thing is important because it forms the way that it is viewed. “Breasts, it seems, are suitable for viewing only when the center of their main evolutionary function—the nipple—remains hidden.”[65] The function that is being discussed here is breastfeeding, and that is a subject which will be discussed further along in this examination as it is integrally linked. The nipple must remain hidden because it is has sexual connotations. “What makes the breasts of women so special?”[66]

Men have breasts, at least the smaller part of them. Men do have them; they are simply not as developed as their female counter-parts. The man can more often go without covering their chest, and their nipples. “The nipple and areola of female breasts are sexual objects to the American public, while the same parts on a man are commonly exposed.”[67] How are male nipples any less sexual than female nipples, or vice versa? The sexualisation of the female breast does harm.

 

“Breasts are an example of concealment feeding into sexual attraction today, but there are other instances that reveal how this process is not the result of an innate, “hardwired” desire.”[68]

 

          The concealment of the breast especially makes the breast more attractive, because they are not accessible, they are more wanted. It is the simple thing that because a person cannot have something they want it more. This leads to the sexual desire for the breast. The sexualisation of the breast has only harmed society through such concealment desires.

 

“women all over the country to begin to reject the stigmatization of breasts, proclaiming their right to go without shirts in the same way men can. Topfree advocates say the hyper-sexualization of women’s chests has only harmed society. By hiding breasts, American culture has made them an enticing taboo and encouraged both males and females to consider them nothing more than aesthetic ornaments, ignoring their true function as sources of food for infants.”[69]

 

          The enticing taboo is further feeding into the concept of sexual attraction of the breast. This has led to the breast being more sexualised, and consequently the social taboo of their exposure only reinforced by such taboo and sexualisation. Their true function as sources of food for infants, and simple pieces of anatomy has been lost in the sexualisation. Such social mores forget that natural things are natural and if they are treated as natural remain so.

 

“Which is funny, because if you raise the children in an environment where breasts are casually seen, the children simply don't care. This is true in Europe, Canada, Australia, Africa, Brazil and a variety of places around the world.”[70]

 

          There are those in Western cultures who believe that exposing children to breasts will corrupt them. This is because of the sexualisation of the breast and the social mores which have been built around the breast as a result. Traditional cultures do not have such sexualisation, and as a result do not have such social mores. The breast is a natural part of life and presence in society.

 

“When thinking about the Free the Nipple movement, there is also the obvious point that many traditional cultures around the world did not require women to cover their breasts until the intervention of Christian missionaries or introduction of Islam. In locations where women are routinely topless, attitudes towards breasts are, unsurprisingly, different to places in which there are prohibitions on their exposure.”[71]

 

          The section on indigenous cultures described several cultures whose traditional clothing had females who had a lack of clothing above the waist. This meant that they had exposed breasts most of the time. The only reason that such cultures’ clothing changed was the result of Christian missionaries or the introduction of Islam which introduced social mores which caused the introduction of the covering of the breast. There are still indigenous cultures around the world whose women still wear their traditional clothing which has their breasts exposed, and this is normal in their culture. None of this denies that the breast does not give pleasure.

 

“None of this is to deny that many people derive pleasure from looking at breasts or that women themselves often derive sensual pleasure from their breasts. But when it comes to the debate about whether women should be able to appear in public topless, we can challenge the idea that an unstoppable desire to gaze on women’s breasts in a sexual way is an inherent part of male biological makeup that will never alter.”[72]

 

          Desire will always be present, but it is something that an individual can control. People have the ability to control what they do, and have the responsibility to do so. The desire of men to gaze at women’s breasts should not prevent women from being able to appear unclothed above their waists, and feel comfortable doing so. The concept of women being able to do so has been challenged by many activists as a basic right.

Basic Right

 

“Toplessness/Topfreedom is a fundamental women's right. It is a basic freedom and without it women will always be subjugated and considered to be "lesser" simply because they are censored.”[73]

 

          MacNevin claims that toplessness is a fundamental women’s right; that without it women will always be censored and considered lesser. This is a rather large claim to make, but if the basic elements are examined some truths can be found. The male is able to go without clothing on their upper part of their body in public without social recrimination in far more situations than the female. The only difference is the presence of larger breast tissue and nipple, in most instances, but both are exposing skin.

 

“The right to bare skin is as basic to all human rights as the right to food, the right to safety and the right to have children or not have children. We were born without clothes, therefore why should it be a "sin" to show the body that we were born with?”[74]

 

          The right to bare skin, the skin that an individual was born with is the claim that is used to support the idea of toplessness being a right. There is also the addition of other simple rights along with others that have been previously fought for, such as the choice of whether or not to have children. While not explicitly, questions about abortion and birth control all question the right whether an individual wants children or not. There is an organisation which supports the idea of women going bare-chested in public the same as men are allowed, based on the constitution.

 

“In the United States, GoTopless.org claims that women have the same constitutional right to be bare chested in public places as men. They further claim constitutional equality between men and women on being topless in public. They have successfully joined in legal challenges that have resulted in laws permitting women to expose their breasts just as men do in New York State and in Ontario, Canada.”[75]

 

          Organisations such as this in the United States have argued successfully for the rights of women to go without tops, as men do in public places. This has resulted in laws being changed in regard to the exposure of the female breast in public being changed, and thus organisations such as these making some headway. Whether they will ever be able to claim it as a “right” or not will remain to be seen. The legal battles so far have been on the side of the advocates for females going topless in public places in many jurisdictions.

Legality

 

“Despite such strong reactions to exposed nipples, going topless (or topfree, as some advocates are calling it in an effort to remove the sexual connotation) is completely legal in Oregon, as well as other states such as Vermont and New York. Oregon law specifies that nudity without the intent to arouse is perfectly acceptable.”[76]

 

          The specificity must be noted “exposed nipples” seems to be the issue. This is evident from swimwear such as the micro-bikini where most of the breast is exposed, and only the nipple is covered. Of significance is that while the legal side of the argument has been resolved, at least for the moment in the above states in the United States, the social issue clearly has not, due to the strong reactions against the exposure. The legal side of the argument was even expanded.

 

“The federal government finally stepped in and stated that toplessness is legal and a basic human right, thus erasing the patchwork of provincial and local laws. Lower half "obscenity" is still illegal in public in most places.”[77]

 

          While the top half of the body seems to have had a federal statement made about it, the lower half of the body still seems to be obscene if it is exposed. This causes issues for those involved in naturism and other natural pursuits. Legal battles are still being fought about this as well. The federal side of the argument solved, it would seem that this has placed toplessness in a safe place, but it still does not.

 

“If we are ever to have equal rights, then we need to make laws that are equal for both men and women. Treating women differently is like saying they are somehow inferior.”[78]

 

          Equality, it would seem, is a distance off yet. There are still places where the laws are not quite as equal as they could be. The problem with laws is that they can be repealed if a more conservative government decides that it needs to, so the fight continues. This is especially the case where such laws and rights have not been granted. The exposed breast has become a simple of liberation in the feminist cause, and some others as well.

Topless Protest

 

“While an exposed breast in public can have many associated connotations, some women in America today argue the exposed breast is a symbol of liberation. They speak against the proposed notion that their rightful place was below their male counterparts. Throughout the late 20th Century, more and more women began to link the struggle for female equality and the repossession of the female body.”[79]

 

          There have been many protests for female equality for different reasons. It has been only in the later 20^th century that the breast has been exposed to emphasise the point of the protest. This has been a symbol of the protest attempting to take back women’s bodies; often the protests were about abortion, topfreedom, and other controls over the female body. Here the exposed breast served as a symbol of freedom.

The same acts, due to their effect, have caught on. “In recent years, topless performances whereby feminist bare their breasts in protest have become popular across the globe,”[80] one reason is the instant publicity that such exposure gains. Others use it to gain focus on the issues that they are protesting about.

 

“While some women exposed their breasts individually, there was also an upsurge in topless demonstrations used to gather public attention for women's issues such as pornography and sexism.”[81]

 

          In these protests it was not individual protestors who would expose their breasts, but all of the protestors who would expose themselves. The point of the protest was to draw attention to themselves and they knew that by the act of exposing their breasts they would do that. Some argue that the attention that such exposure draws may not be the attention that they seek.

 

“As she put it, this was not because she had anything against bare breasts per se, but rather because she had to wonder whether women exposing their breasts ‘represents the highest form of emancipation’.”[82]

 

          Some peaceful protests gather thousands of individuals marching on government buildings, claiming to be marching for peaceful reasons, which then turn violent and garner interest from the media due to their violence rather than their cause. Some would claim that the exposure of the breast by women at protests is only to draw the attention of the media, and loses sight of the objectives of the protest because the attention is drawn to the social issue of naked flesh rather than what is being protested. It is not that the exposure of the breast is not effective, it has been.

 

“In Western countries, toplessness in public often generates media coverage, leading some female political demonstrators to deliberately expose their breasts in public to draw media and public attention to their cause. For example, in January 2012, three members of the Ukrainian protest group FEMEN attracted worldwide media attention after they staged a topless protest at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland.”[83]

 

          The FEMEN protests were particularly effective for several reasons. They were made by a group from a well-known repressive cultural regime. The protest itself was staged effectively so it had placement and effect. The group itself already had a reputation and a certain level of notoriety, before that protest, and continuing notoriety after that protest. This gave the group the impact that it needed.

          It wasn’t that the FEMEN protest was the first topless protest in feminist history, “it should not be forgotten that topless protests have a long history in feminism. It is hardly new that women use their naked bodies as a form of rebellion.”[84] Social mores are built to hide the female body for the most part, and certainly not expose it in public for the purposes of protest. Topless protests go against Western culturally-held ideas. The problem is it requires time and place to be effective.

 

“feminist topless protests take place in specific locations and need to be evaluated in terms of how they expose power relations or empower women in that particular context. Bodies may be a powerful sites of resistance historically, but not all topless protests are effective forms of feminist rebellion. One of the most well-known examples of this can be found in the organized protests of FEMEN, who demonstrate topless in public with political slogans written across their bare breasts (‘freedom for women’, ‘rape is not tradition’, ‘fuck your rules’, etc.).”[85]

 

          The effectiveness of the topless protest needs critical evaluation before a person can see how effective it is, or will be in the future. Political and social issues and events need to be taken into account to find out whether or not a topless protest will have the same impact as it did previously. For example, it would be almost pointless staging one immediately during or after an annual naked bike ride, or at the other extreme, after a terrorist incident. Both incidents would leave the public numb, even to the sight of female breasts. Another is to examine the reason for the protest and see how it compares to the use of the tool.

 

“The reaction to exposed breast as a symbol of liberation was two-sided. Women who took part in the movement expressed their desire to turn attention away from the excessive eroticization of the female body in American popular culture to more essential societal needs.”[86]

 

          Exposing the breast when talking about essential social needs is a little pointless, except if one is maybe talking about the feeding of infants. It would be effective if one is talking about the sexualisation of the female body, having the breast exposed could be seen as normalising their presence, rather than hiding them. A further issue becomes about where do different women fit in these protests?

 

“While many have applauded FEMEN’s transgressive performances because they expose and reframe hegemonic control over women’s bodies and reclaim their agency and raise their voices in public, others are more critical. Their protests are always performed by young, white, slender, educated women with bodies that perfectly match the sexualized stereotypes of femininity. Where do older women, women of size, lesbians, disabled women and women of colour fit into FEMEN’s politics?”[87]

 

          If protests are always performed by fit, slender, white, educated, women with bodies that perfectly fit the stereotypes of bodies that fit within they type that individuals are “supposed” to be looking at, where do other women who don’t conform to that particular profile fit? This is the question that needs to be asked if a protest is to be effective and inclusive. A protest may be effective at aiming in one direction, but being so effective in its message, it may simultaneously disenfranchise another group.

 

“body politics resonate differently in different contexts and that what might be considered feminist in one context may be considered ethnocentric or even racist in another.”[88]

 

          The image that the protestors present is important and will resonate through their message with the first impression, just like any other first impression, and it matters if they want to get the message through to the largest group. Having a group of white women turn up to protest female issues in a neighbourhood which is mostly of a different ethnicity may not be the best approach. “It makes perfect sense to think critically about body politics within the cultural and geopolitical landscape which we both share and in which we differ.”[89] Breasts come in different shapes and different colours, and all of them are normal.

Normal Bodies

 

“a group of feminist students compiled a booklet of photographs of naked breasts, calling it the ‘Boobie Bible’. Their goal was to criticize the sexualization of women’s bodies and the unrealistic images of perfect breasts in the media that make women feel ashamed of their bodies. By exposing and photographing their own breasts, the students not only wanted to show how different breasts can be: ‘sexual but also funny, big or small, dark or light …’, but also, as they put it, that women’s breasts are ordinary, ‘just breasts’.”[90]

 

          Women are under a lot of pressure to have “perfect” bodies with “perfect” breasts, and some go to the extent of having surgery to correct their breasts or enhance them because they don’t like them or for other reasons. The “Boobie Bible” was an attempt to present breasts as they are, normal and perfect just the way they are, to show that the media presents unrealistic images giving people unrealistic expectations of what they should be like, and this is not the first time it has happened.

 

“feminist activists and artists have often assembled photographs of differently embodied women to show how ordinary bodies, breasts and vaginas seldom conform to cultural ideals of femininity.”[91]

 

          The purpose of such art works is to show female bodies in their normal states; to show that the natural body rarely conforms to the cultural ideals. These collections are designed also to desexualise women’s bodies and make them ordinary, to be viewed simply as human beings, not as sexual objects. The issue with such collections have always originated from cultural and social concerns in regard to modesty and nudity.

 

“Whether large or small, perky or pendulous, boobs are more than just funbags—they have a biological function to fill. There is nothing inherently indecent or obscene about them. They’re just breasts.”[92]

 

          Breasts are a normal part of the human female body, and also present on the human male body, just in a smaller proportion. The male can also get breast cancer; it is just rarer and not often spoken about. The function of the female breast is to feed infants, an normal function of a normal part of the body.

Breastfeeding

 

“Much of the discomfort and shaming surrounding public breastfeeding stems from the overwhelming understanding of breasts as sexually arousing to the viewer.”[93]

 

          Breastfeeding is the best way to feed an infant and gives the infant the greatest amount of nutrients. However there are still embedded social issues associated with breastfeeding attached to the exposure of the breast which is a part of the process. This is because the breast, and in particular the nipple is seen as sexually arousing.

 

“With such strong sentiments against nipple exposure and the sexual status attributed to breasts in the U.S., public breastfeeding has become a controversial action. Thanks to the general view of breasts as sex organs, many see nursing in public as an indecent and impolite act that forces passers-by to be exposed to nudity. Supporters of breastfeeding, however, counter with the fact that producing milk is the only natural function of a breast and is far better for both mother and child.”[94]

 

          Breastfeeding is a natural function, it is seen with all mammals, yet human beings are the only ones who have taboos which are associated with it. Noted above is the issue associated with this normal function being the exposure of the nipple which is associated with sex. Further the breastfeeding process may expose some passer-by to a naked breast during the process of the infant feeding and this may cause offence to the individual. The whole issue stems from social issues based in puritanical issues of centuries previous.

 

“Around the world, it is common for women to breastfeed in public. In the United States during the 1990s and later, there were a number of legal incidents where women were harassed or cited for exposing their breasts while breastfeeding in public. A public backlash spurred legislators in some jurisdictions to specifically legalize public breastfeeding.”[95]

 

          Consider the implications. You are a mother, your child is hungry, you are breastfeeding the child by choice, you now have to find somewhere to feed the child because you can’t do it out in public because someone might get offended. The legalising of public breastfeeding is something that simply had to happen, women were often forced to feed infants in public bathrooms, unsanitary conditions for feeding an infant. Such negative attitudes toward the naked breast that is present in society cause issues for the breastfeeding mother.

 

“American attitudes toward naked breasts play a large role in persuading women to make the switch to formula, as discrimination against and harassment of nursing women are all too common despite numerous state laws allowing public breastfeeding.”[96]

 

          It is not laws discouraging mothers from breastfeeding and to deciding to use formula when it is not medically advised, it is social pressure. Mothers simply decide that they do not want the social issues associated with having to breastfeeding in a public place. Laws may state that it is legal for a mother to breastfeed in a public place, but it does nothing against those who may discriminate or harass them. The attitude to breasts needs to change.

 

“When the general public is uncomfortable with the act, mothers are hesitant to nurse. The underlying sentiment is that breastfeeding is somehow dirty and shameful—an attitude directly related to American society’s highly sexualized view of breasts.”[97]

 

Result

 

“Even when topfreedom becomes legal that doesn't mean that women will suddenly start running around topless all the time. It’s a choice. Many women have been raised to think its not proper. Things will change slowly after the new laws are in place. A few women will go topless, the same few who likely would have broke the law anyway. The square people and religious freaks would still be against it, but that’s their opinion and they're entitled to have their opinion.”[98]

 

          There is a fear that when women are given the right to go topless that they will do so all of the time without any sort of control. This is simply not the case. There are those who will take it to the extreme, but there are always those who will be at this extreme, and there are those who are doing similar now, flaunting the laws that say that they should not be doing it. Protestors will lose a lot of their impact at topless protests with the granting of topfreedom as it will not be so risqué, so that needs to be considered as well. One thing is for sure, the female body will always remain political and the subject of politics until the rights between men and women are equal.

Conclusion

          There has been quite a bit of discussion about toplessness, in this investigation. It is not a subject which tends to hit the mainstream media, unless it is in the form of a protest, or some scandal. There is always the connotation that there is something rude, or shameful about the bare breast, even the subject of breastfeeding is contentious, most often stories in the media about this concern an issue about a lady who has been asked to leave a restaurant because she has decided to breastfeed, and then the boycott of that restaurant that follows. The subject of the breast needs to be normalised.

          The focus of the discussion has been on the subject of the bare breast, primarily in regard to the concern of toplessness, mostly concerning the female being unclothed from the waist upward in public. The definition that was given was discussed in two places, first to establish a definition, and then to highlight the etymological and political difference between the male and female indication of being unclothed from the waist upward.

          For the male it simply indicates that they have no clothing on, the chest is bare. For the female it is indicated that the top is missing. This shows a focus on the normality of males and females being unclothed from the waist up in Western culture, it is not an issue for a male to be unclothed in this fashion, yet for a female the approach is different and it is, here is a key to the difference culturally. If both male and female are to be considered the same when they are unclothed from the waist up they should be referred to using the same term, simply indicating their state of being, “bare-chested.

          Historical examples were given as to the approach to the breast, demonstrating that it was not always the sexual object that it is today, that other parts of the body were considered more sexual. Further that the breast was exposed in fashions as a normal part of dress in Western culture. Such considerations need to be considered when addressing the supposed “inherent” sexual nature of the breast. Such claims are further disputed when examining indigenous cultures.

          In many indigenous cultures the breasts were exposed as a normal part of dress. This has been presented as a part of this investigation. In many of these indigenous cultures the covering of the breast only occurred as the result of external influences. Further, there are indigenous cultures in which the native dress still has the breast exposed. Here the breast’s presence is naturalised, it is not considered “sexual” or “taboo” so there is no need to cover them. Accusations of the “primitive” nature of the cultures only expose the Western-centric nature of the individual who makes these claims, and the influence of older social norms established centuries previous.

          Moving onward from indigenous cultures one can examine Western fashions and can see examples of topless fashions. These are, in many cases, simply the removal of the top of the bikini, or the simple absence of the top, in the monokini’s case. The topless bathing suit invented by Rudi Gernreich was a simple experiment designed to challenge the status quo, as fashion often does, but points toward the subject of topless bathing.

          The Europeans believe there is no cause for concern in regard to topless bathing, though they have cultural practises in place, and do not understand the American issue with it. Toplessness is most associated with water and bathing, and has a long history of this association. It is the expanse from this area which is the main cause for concern for many people, into public areas away from bathing.

          There is always politics concerning the female body. Laws have been written controlling what women may or may not do with their bodies, thankfully many of these laws are being re-written, or repealed completely, returning the control to the individual. The subject of the female body will always cause contention, as the female body has been sexualised due to Western culture, and many other cultures as well, and this has resulted in social norms, which have caused such laws as previously indicated.

          There is a fight for basic rights for the control of female control over their bodies, in this case for the same rights for females that males have to have their upper bodies exposed in public. This challenges social mores and norms, so there is argument against it. Legal battles have been fought, at least in the US, and won. Further protests continue, featuring topless protests for the argument for the desexualisation of the breast and normalisation of the presence of the bare breast in public.

          Arguments are present about the topless protest and whether such protests include all women. These need to be addressed sincerely to ensure that the protests achieve the ends that they aim to set out to achieve. The most important of these is to demonstrate that all bodies are normal, and that each females’ body are something to be embraced, not just those which are presented in the media, or in the ideals of femininity.

          Breastfeeding is a normal function of the breast. It is a subject of some contention, especially when it occurs in public. While there are laws which protect the act of breastfeeding in public, there are also social issues with the act. Social recrimination may still occur and breastfeeding mothers may still be harassed for performing this natural act in public, because they are exposing the breast and nipple in public. This is rooted in the idea that they are sexual objects, which is founded back in the basic argument upon which the topless argument is also founded.

          The breast, at least in Western cultures needs to be desexualised, to be accepted as a normal part of the human anatomy, not as an inherently sexual object. Males have breasts, just not as pronounced as the female. Indeed in the question of breast cancer, the male is subject to the same threat, just not as often. The key to the question of the bare breast and its acceptance lies in an acceptance of its normality, to see that the breast is a normal part of life, and that it is no different to any other part of the body. Indeed the naturist community who argues for public placed in which people are free to go completely without clothes, top and bottom, argue for a normalisation of the entire body, all bodies. All bodies are natural, and all bodies need to be accepted as natural, not inherently sexual.

 

Bibliography

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Smith, M. (2016) “No, you’re not ‘hardwired’ to stare at women’s breasts” in The Conversation, https://theconversation.com/no-youre-not-hardwired-to-stare-at-womens-breasts-53449, [accessed 25/1/2021]

 

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[1] Rodio, C. (2017) “Criminal Profiling: Lust and Violence Intertwined”, Thesis for BSc (Hons) Criminology, London Metropolitan University, London, p.2

[2] Rosebush, J. (2009) “Topless (No Top)” in Bikini Science, https://web.archive.org/web/20100108023628/http://www.bikiniscience.com/costumes/soutien-gorge_SS/topless_S/topless.html, [accessed 17/3/2021]

[3] Wikipedia (2021) “Toplessness” in Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toplessness, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[4] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[5] Wikipedia (2021)

[6] ibid.

[7] ibid.

[8] ibid.

[9] ibid.

[10] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[11] Wikipedia (2021)

[12] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[13] https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-49329680

[14] https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-50592811

[15] MacNevin, S. (2021) “Topfreedom: The Fundamental Right of Women” in The Feminist eZine, www.feministezine.com/feminist/toplessness004.html, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[16] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[17] Wikipedia (2021)

[18] ibid.

[19] BBC (2004) “Aborigines' fury over topless ban” in BBC News, news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3493408.stm, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[20] ibid.

[21] ibid.

[22] ibid.

[23] Wikipedia (2021)

[24] Anon (2021) “Traditional Dress” in Window to Chiang Mai in Thailand, https://www.chiangmai1.com/chiang_mai/sub/traditional_dress.shtml, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[25] ibid.

[26] Wikipedia (2021)

[27] Fernando, R. (1992) “The Garb of Innocence: A Time of Toplessness” in The Living Heritage Trust, livingheritage.org/toplessness.htm, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[28] ibid.

[29] Wikipedia (2021)

[30] Fernando, R. (1992)

[31] Wikipedia (2021)

[32] Fernando, R. (1992)

[33] Ibid.

[34] ibid.

[35] ibid.

[36] Wikipedia (2021)

[37] Briand, G. and Peters, R. (2010) “Community Perspectives on Cultural Considerations for Breast and Cervical Cancer Education among Marshallese Women in Orange County, California”, Californian Journal of Health Promotion 2010, Volume 8, Special Issue (Cancer Control), p.86

[38] Wikipedia (2021)

[39] Wikipedia (2021a) “Umhlanga (ceremony)” in Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umhlanga_(ceremony), [accessed 24/3/2021]

[40] BBC (2008) “Topless Swimsuits and Dresses” in I Love 1964: Fashion, bbc.adactio.com/cult/ilove/years/1964/fashion1.shtml, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[41] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[42] BBC (2008)

[43] ibid.

[44] Wikipedia (2021)

[45] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[46] Wikipedia (2021)

[47] ibid.

[48] ibid.

[49] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[50] Davis, K. (2016) “Bared breasts and body politics” in European Journal of Women's Studies, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1350506816650860, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[51] Wikipedia (2021)

[52] George, K. (2010) “Busting Out: The Right to Bare It All” in Ethos Magazine, https://web.archive.org/web/20120815075239/http://ethosmagonline.com/archives/6654, [accessed 17/3/2021]

[53] Smith, M. (2016) “No, you’re not ‘hardwired’ to stare at women’s breasts” in The Conversation, https://theconversation.com/no-youre-not-hardwired-to-stare-at-womens-breasts-53449, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[54] Wikipedia (2021)

[55] ibid.

[56] ibid.

[57] ibid.

[58] ibid.

[59] ibid.

[60] George, K. (2010)

[61] Wikipedia (2021)

[62] Smith, M. (2016)

[63] Rosebush, J. (2009)

[64] Smith, M. (2016)

[65] George, K. (2010)

[66] MacNevin, S. (2021) “Topfreedom: The Fundamental Right of Women” in The Feminist eZine, www.feministezine.com/feminist/toplessness004.html, [accessed 25/1/2021]

[67] George, K. (2010)

[68] Smith, M. (2016)

[69] George, K. (2010)

[70] MacNevin, S. (2021)

[71] Smith, M. (2016)

[72] ibid.

[73] MacNevin, S. (2021)

[74] ibid.

[75] Wikipedia (2021)

[76] George, K. (2010)

[77] MacNevin, S. (2021)

[78] ibid.

[79] Wikipedia (2021)

[80] Davis, K. (2016)

[81] Wikipedia (2021)

[82] Davis, K. (2016)

[83] Wikipedia (2021)

[84] Davis, K. (2016)

[85] ibid.

[86] Wikipedia (2021)

[87] Davis, K. (2016)

[88] ibid.

[89] ibid.

[90] ibid.

[91] ibid.

[92] George, K. (2010)

[93] Smith, M. (2016)

[94] George, K. (2010)

[95] Wikipedia (2021)

[96] George, K. (2010)

[97] ibid.

[98] MacNevin, S. (2021)